Diseño y validación de los instrumentos cuantitativo y cualitativo 0-6 lme para determinar los factores de riesgo de la interrupción de la lactancia materna exclusiva / Design and validation of the quantitative and qualitative instruments 0-6 lme to determine the risk factors of the interruption of exclusive breastfeeding

La lactancia materna exclusiva (LME) ha sido considerada una práctica saludable, ya que contribuye con nutrientes esenciales para la salud y crecimiento del niño. Desde esta perspectiva se considera necesario disponer de instrumentos de medición como herramientas para el levantamiento de información sobre problemáticas de salud. Por consiguiente, para garantizar la calidad del instrumento, es indispensable que éste sea sometido a un proceso de validación por juicio de expertos. Objetivo: Validar los instrumentos cuantitativo y cualitativo 0-6 LME para establecer los factores de riesgo que determinan la interrupción de la lactancia materna exclusiva. Método: La metodología empleada tuvo un enfoque mixto (cuantitativo.- cualitativo) de corte transversal, exploratorio, descriptivo y de campo. El enfoque cualitativo es fenomenológico e interpretativo. El instrumento cuantitativo se diseñó con respuestas dicotómicas y polinómicas y el instrumento cualitativo fue diseñado con preguntas abiertas para realizar la entrevista a profundidad o saturación. Como responsables de la validación de los instrumentos estuvieron 2 PhD, 1 especialista y 2 investigadores. Resultados: La validación por parte de los expertos determinó para el criterio de pertinencia 93,18 puntos, para el criterio validez 93,07 puntos y para el criterio coherencia 92,67. Del mismo modo fueron obtenidos los resultados para el instrumento cualitativo, el criterio validez 95,73 puntos, para el criterio pertinencia 95,73 y para coherencia 95,73 puntos. Conclusión: se establece que los instrumentos son considerados confiables de acuerdo al juicio de los expertos, por lo tanto, fueron validados y servirán como aporte para obtener los datos requeridos en la investigación científica(AU)

Exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) has been considered a healthy practice, since it contributes essential nutrients for the health and growth of the child. From this perspective, it considered necessary to have measurement instruments as tools for gathering information on health problems. Therefore, to guarantee the quality of the instrument, it is essential to submit these instruments to an expert validation process based on expert judgment. Objective: To validate the quantitative and qualitative instruments 0-6 LME to establish the risk factors that determine the interruption of exclusive breastfeeding. Method: The methodology used had a mixed approach (quantitative-qualitative) of cross-sectional, exploratory, descriptive and field sections. The qualitative approach is phenomenological and interpretive. The quantitative instrument was designed with dichotomous and polynomial responses and the qualitative instrument was designed with open questions to carry out the interview in depth or saturation. Responsible for the validation of the instruments were 2 PhD, 1 specialist and 2 researchers. Results: The validation by the experts determined for the relevance criterion 93.18 points, for the validity criterion 93.07 points and for the coherence criterion 92.67. In the same way, the results obtained for the qualitative instrument, the validity criterion 95.73 points, for the relevance criterion 95.73 and for coherence 95.73 points. Conclusion: it established that the instruments are considered reliable according to the judgment of the experts; therefore, they were validated and will serve as a contribution to obtain the data required in scientific research(AU)

Epidemiological characteristics and strategies for the prevention of diarrheal disease in indigenous children: A scoping review / Características epidemiológicas y estrategias para la prevención de la diarrea en niños indígenas: una revisión scoping

Aim: The a:im of the present scoping review was to map the scientific evidence about iarrheal disease in indigenous children and the strategies that can be used to prevent it. Methods: The subject headings were indigenous population; child; diarrhea; dysentery; epidemiology; and prevention, primary; also the following keywords characteristic, epidemiologic study; and children. The databases consulted were Latin American and Caribbean Health Sciences Literature, MEDLINE via the US National Library of Medicine/National Institutes of Health, and Web of Science. Initially, 268 studies were identified, and after being screened using the eligibility criteria, six were selected. Finally, via reference tracking, five more were identified. The final sample was made up of eleven articles. Results: The results confirmed higher mortality rates due to diarrheal disease among indigenous children who are socially disadvantaged and living in poor hygienic and basic sanitation conditions. Among the primary prevention strategies are basic sanitation, health education better hygiene habits, animal control, breastfeeding, supplementing the diet with zinc, vitamins, and the rotavirus vaccine. The preventive strategies included the use of oral rehydration solutions, adequate nutrition, prescribed antimicrobials, and intravenous fluid replacement with glycaemic and electrolyte correction in severe cases. Conclusion: In conclusion, public policies regarding the indigenous population and cross-cultural care should be strengthened. The present study confirmed that, at a global level, there is a lack of publications studying this issue

Objetivo: El objetivo de la presente scoping review fue mapear las evidencias científicas sobre la enfermedad diarreica en niños indígenas y las estrategias que se pueden usar para prevenirla. Método: Se utilizó el siguiente vocabulario controlado: población indígena, niño, diarrea, disentería, epidemiología y prevención primaria, también las siguientes palabras clave: estudio epidemiológico característico y niño. Las bases de datos consultadas fueron Literatura Latinoamericana y del Caribe en Ciencias de la Salud (LILACS), MEDLINE a través de la Biblioteca Nacional de Medicina de EE. UU./Institutos Nacionales de Salud (PubMed) y Web of Science. Inicialmente, 268 estudios fueron identificados y, después de ser seleccionados usando los criterios de elegibilidad, 6 fueron seleccionados. Finalmente, a través del rastreo de referencia, 5 más fueron identificados. La muestra final se compuso de 11 artículos. Resultados: Los resultados confirmaron tasas de mortalidad más altas debido a la enfermedad diarreica entre niños indígenas socialmente desfavorecidos, y que viven en malas condiciones higiénicas y de saneamiento básico. Entre las principales estrategias de prevención están saneamiento básico, educación en salud, mejores hábitos de higiene, control de animales, lactancia, suplementación de la dieta con cinc, vitaminas y vacuna contra el rotavirus. Estrategias de prevención incluyen el uso de soluciones de rehidratación oral, nutrición adecuada, antimicrobianos prescritos y reposición intravenosa de líquidos con corrección glucémica y electrolítica en casos graves. Conclusión: Las políticas públicas en relación a la población indígena y el cuidado transcultural deben ser fortalecidas. El presente estudio confirmó que, a nivel global, faltan publicaciones estudiando esta cuestión

The geo-spatial distribution of childhood diarrheal disease in West Africa, 2008-2013: A covariate-adjusted cluster analysis.

Diarrhea is a major cause of morbidity and mortality among children in West Africa. To determine whether there are areas of heightened risk and if so, how they may be influenced by household and climatic variables, we describe the geo-spatial distribution of childhood diarrhea in ten countries of West Africa for the period 2008-2013 using data from Demographic and Health Surveys. The purely spatial scan statistic was applied, where the observed diarrhea cases were modeled as a Poisson variable and were compared to expected cases predicted from non-spatial logistic regression. Covariate-adjusted cluster analysis detected statistically significant clusters (p < 0.05) in ten cities and thirteen largely rural areas. Areas with particularly high relative risk included Cotonou, Benin (7.16), and Kaduna, Nigeria (7.21). The study demonstrates the importance of development and adaptation measures to protect child health, and that these interventions should be tailored to meet the needs of specific populations.

Incidence of Acute Diarrhea-Associated Death among Children < 5 Years of Age in Bangladesh, 2010-12.

Although acute diarrheal deaths have declined globally among children < 5 years, it may still contribute to childhood mortality as an underlying or contributing cause. The aim of this project was to estimate the incidence of acute diarrhea-associated deaths, regardless of primary cause, among children < 5 years in Bangladesh during 2010-12. We conducted a survey in 20 unions (administrative units) within the catchment areas of 10 tertiary hospitals in Bangladesh. Through social networks, our field team identified households where children < 5 years were reported to have died during 2010-12. Trained data collectors interviewed caregivers of the deceased children and recorded illness symptoms, health care seeking, and other information using an abbreviated international verbal autopsy questionnaire. We classified the deceased based upon the presence of diarrhea before death. We identified 880 deaths, of which 36 (4%) died after the development of acute diarrhea, 17 (2%) had diarrhea-only in the illness preceding death, and 19 (53%) had cough or difficulty breathing in addition to diarrhea. The estimated annual incidence of all-cause mortality in the unions < 13.6 km of the tertiary hospitals was 26 (95% confidence interval [CI] 16-37) per 1,000 live births compared with the mortality rate of 37 (95% CI 26-49) per 1,000 live births in the unions located ≥ 13.6 km. Diarrhea contributes to childhood death at a higher proportion than when considering it only as the sole underlying cause of death. These data support the use of interventions aimed at preventing acute diarrhea, especially available vaccinations for common etiologies, such as rotavirus.

Rotavirus vaccination takes seasonal signature of childhood diarrhea back to pre-sanitation era in Brazil.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to examine the previously unknown long-term spatio-temporal patterns in diarrheal morbidity and mortality across age groups and geography in Brazil under the light of evolving socioeconomic factors and interventions. METHODS: Nationwide mortality (1979-2014) and hospitalization (1998-2014) data were obtained from the Brazilian Ministry of Health. Analyses of long-term secular trends and seasonality of diarrheal morbidity and mortality were performed in EPIPOI (www.epipoi.info). RESULTS: For most states, the primary peak in mortality risk among children under 5 years occurred from December-April (summer/early autumn) from 1979-1988. From 2000-2005 (before the 2006 implementation of rotavirus vaccination), the pattern switched to June-October (winter/early spring). By 2007-2014, the peak in mortality shifted back towards summer/early autumn. A similar pattern was observed for hospitalizations. These patterns were particularly apparent in non-equatorial regions of the country. In contrast, the risk of diarrhea-related death among older children (5-19 years) did not demonstrate well-defined seasonality or spatial patterns. CONCLUSIONS: Rotavirus vaccination policies were associated with a shift in the timing of seasonal peaks in children under 5, reminiscent of the summer diarrhea period common decades prior. Additionally, young children were shown to have distinct disease patterns compared to other age groups, suggesting different etiologies.

New mutations of EpCAM gene for tufting enteropathy in Saudi Arabia.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Tufting enteropathy (TE) is a rare cause of congenital intractable diarrhea in children. It often results in an irreversible intestinal failure and total parenteral nutrition (TPN) dependency; eventually, intestinal transplantation may be necessary. Data on TE from the Middle East are scarce; therefore, our aim of conducting this study was to clarify the clinical, histopathologic, and molecular features of TE in Saudi children. PATIENTS AND METHODS: This was a retrospective chart review of four children with TE who presented between January 2011 and December 2013 to King Fahad Specialist Hospital-Dammam (KFSH-D). The diagnosis of TE was suspected based on characteristic histopathologic intestinal biopsy findings and confirmed by EpCAM gene testing. RESULTS: Molecular testing identified two novel mutations in the EpCAM gene in our patients. These mutations were associated with severe phenotype of the disease characterized by very early onset (median of 2 weeks of life), TPN dependency, and death during early childhood. Two patients died due to central line-related complications. Two patients were referred for intestinal transplantation due to loss of intravenous access in one and progressive liver disease in the other. CONCLUSION: Mutations in EpCAM gene in Saudi children are characterized by severe phenotype and poor outcome.

Predictors of Health-Care Utilization Among Children 6-59 Months of Age in Zambézia Province, Mozambique

Abstract. Globally, approximately 5.9 million children under 5 years of age died in 2015, a reduction of over 50% since 1990. Millennium Development Goal 4 established the goal of reducing child mortality by two-thirds by 2015. Multiple countries have surpassed this goal; however, regional and within-country inequities exist. We sought to study determinants of health-care utilization among children 6­59 months of age with fever, diarrhea, and respiratory symptoms in Zambézia Province, Mozambique. We conducted a population-based cross-sectional survey of female heads of household between April and May 2014. Mobile teams conducted interviews in 262 enumeration areas, with three distinct districts being oversampled for improved precision. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression using Stata 13.1 and R 3.2.2 were used to examine factors associated with health-care utilization. A total of 2,317 children were evaluated in this study. Mothers' median age was 26 years, whereas child median age was 24 months. The proportion of children reporting fever, diarrhea, or respiratory illness in the prior 30 days was 44%, 22%, and 22%, respectively. Health-care utilization varied with 65% seeking health care for fever, compared with 57% for diarrhea and 25% for respiratory illness. In multivariable logistic regression, the characteristics most associated with health-care utilization across illnesses were delivery of last child at a facility, higher maternal education, and household ownership of a radio. The decision or ability to use health care is a multifaceted behavior swayed by societal norms, values, socioeconomics, and perceived need. Recognizing the predictors of a particular population may offer useful information to increase uptake in health-care services.

Oral zinc for treating diarrhoea in children.

BACKGROUND: In developing countries, diarrhoea causes around 500,000 child deaths annually. Zinc supplementation during acute diarrhoea is currently recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). OBJECTIVES: To evaluate oral zinc supplementation for treating children with acute or persistent diarrhoea. SEARCH METHODS: We searched the Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group Specialized Register, CENTRAL (the Cochrane Library 2016, Issue 5), MEDLINE, Embase, LILACS, CINAHL, mRCT, and reference lists up to 30 September 2016. We also contacted researchers. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that compared oral zinc supplementation with placebo in children aged one month to five years with acute or persistent diarrhoea, including dysentery. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Both review authors assessed trial eligibility and risk of bias, extracted and analysed data, and drafted the review. The primary outcomes were diarrhoea duration and severity. We summarized dichotomous outcomes using risk ratios (RR) and continuous outcomes using mean differences (MD) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Where appropriate, we combined data in meta-analyses (using either a fixed-effect or random-effects model) and assessed heterogeneity.We assessed the certainty of the evidence using the GRADE approach. MAIN RESULTS: Thirty-three trials that included 10,841 children met our inclusion criteria. Most included trials were conducted in Asian countries that were at high risk of zinc deficiency. Acute diarrhoeaThere is currently not enough evidence from well-conducted RCTs to be able to say whether zinc supplementation during acute diarrhoea reduces death or number of children hospitalized (very low certainty evidence).In children older than six months of age, zinc supplementation may shorten the average duration of diarrhoea by around half a day (MD -11.46 hours, 95% CI -19.72 to -3.19; 2581 children, 9 trials, low certainty evidence), and probably reduces the number of children whose diarrhoea persists until day seven (RR 0.73, 95% CI 0.61 to 0.88; 3865 children, 6 trials, moderate certainty evidence). In children with signs of malnutrition the effect appears greater, reducing the duration of diarrhoea by around a day (MD -26.39 hours, 95% CI -36.54 to -16.23; 419 children, 5 trials, high certainty evidence).Conversely, in children younger than six months of age, the available evidence suggests zinc supplementation may have no effect on the mean duration of diarrhoea (MD 5.23 hours, 95% CI -4.00 to 14.45; 1334 children, 2 trials, moderate certainty evidence), or the number of children who still have diarrhoea on day seven (RR 1.24, 95% CI 0.99 to 1.54; 1074 children, 1 trial, moderate certainty evidence).None of the included trials reported serious adverse events. However, zinc supplementation increased the risk of vomiting in both age groups (children greater than six months of age: RR 1.57, 95% CI 1.32 to 1.86; 2605 children, 6 trials, moderate certainty evidence; children less than six months of age: RR 1.54, 95% CI 1.05 to 2.24; 1334 children, 2 trials, moderate certainty evidence). Persistent diarrhoeaIn children with persistent diarrhoea, zinc supplementation probably shortens the average duration of diarrhoea by around 16 hours (MD -15.84 hours, 95% CI -25.43 to -6.24; 529 children, 5 trials, moderate certainty evidence). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: In areas where the prevalence of zinc deficiency or the prevalence of malnutrition is high, zinc may be of benefit in children aged six months or more. The current evidence does not support the use of zinc supplementation in children less six months of age, in well-nourished children, and in settings where children are at low risk of zinc deficiency.

Tendência temporal da mortalidade por doenças infecciosas intestinais em crianças menores de cinco anos de idade, no estado de São Paulo, 2000-2012 / Tendencias temporales de mortalidad por enfermedades infecciosas intestinales en niños menores de cinco años, en el estado de São Paulo, Brasil, 2000-2012 / Time trends in mortality from intestinal infectious diseases among children under five years old, in São Paulo State, Brazil, 2000-2012

OBJETIVO: analisar a tendência temporal da mortalidade por doenças infecciosas intestinais (DII) em crianças menores de cinco anos de idade no estado de São Paulo e suas Redes Regionais de Atenção à Saúde (RRAS), no período 2000-2012. MÉTODOS: estudo de série temporal sobre os óbitos com causa básica, antecedente ou contribuinte de morte por DII, obtidos a partir do Sistema de Informações sobre Mortalidade (SIM). RESULTADOS: ocorreram 2.886 óbitos por DII no estado; a taxa de mortalidade por DII apresentou diminuição de 10,5% ao ano (intervalo de confiança de 95% 4,8; 15,8%); em 13 das 17 RRAS ocorreu diminuição significativa da taxa de mortalidade, com decréscimo anual variável entre 16,6 e 8,3% ao ano. CONCLUSÃO: a taxa de mortalidade por DII apresentou decréscimo significativo na maioria das RRAS, com diferentes velocidades, possível reflexo das desigualdades das condições socioeconômicas e de organização das redes de atenção à saúde.

OBJETIVO: analizar la tendencia de mortalidad por enfermedades infecciosas intestinales (EII) en niños menores de cinco años en el estado de São Paulo y sus Redes Regionales de Atención de Salud (RRAS), entre 2000 y 2012. MÉTODOS: estudio de series temporales sobre las muertes por causa subyacente, antecedente o contribuyente por EII, obtenidos del Sistema de Información sobre Mortalidad (SIM). RESULTADOS: ocurrieron 2.886 muertes por EII en el estado; la tasa de mortalidad para EII mostró diminución de 10,5% por año (IC del 95% - 4,8 a 15,8% -; p=0,002); en 13 de 17 RRAS hubo disminución significativa en la tasa de mortalidad, con diminución anual variable entre 16,6 y 8,3% por año. CONCLUSIÓN: la tasa de mortalidad por EII se redujo significativamente en la mayoría de RRAS, con diferentes velocidades, posiblemente reflejando desigualdades de condiciones socio-económicas y de organización de las redes de atención en salud.

OBJECTIVE: to analyze time trends in mortality owing to intestinal infectious diseases (IID) among children under five years of age in São Paulo State and its Regional Health Care Networks (RRAS), from 2000 to 2012. METHODS: this was a time series study of deaths having IID as their underlying, antecedent or contributory cause, using Mortality Information System data. RESULTS: there were 2,886 deaths from IID in the state; the IID mortality rate went down by 10.5% per year (95%CI 4.8;15.8%); there was a significant decrease in the mortality rate in 13 of the 17 RRAS, with annual decrease in the range 16.6% - 8.3%. CONCLUSION: The IID mortality rate went down significantly in most RRAS, at different speeds, possibly reflecting inequalities in socio-economic conditions and health care network organization.

Findings from a comprehensive diarrhoea prevention and treatment programme in Lusaka, Zambia.

BACKGROUND: The Programme for the Awareness and Elimination of Diarrhoea (PAED) was a pilot comprehensive diarrhoea prevention and control programme aimed to reduce post-neonatal, all-cause under-five mortality by 15 % in Lusaka Province. Interventions included introduction of the rotavirus vaccine, improved clinical case management of diarrhoea, and a comprehensive community prevention and advocacy campaign on hand washing with soap, exclusive breastfeeding up to 6 months of age, and the use of ORS and Zinc. This study aimed to assess the impact of PAED on under-5 mortality. METHODS: The study was a pre-post evaluation design. The Demographic and Health Survey style population-based two-stage approach was used to collect data at the beginning of the intervention and 3 years following the start of intervention implementation in Lusaka province. The primary outcome of interest was an all-cause, post-neonatal under-five mortality rate defined as the probability of dying after the 28th day and before the fifth birthday among children aged 1-59 months. The Kaplan-Meier time to event analysis was used to estimate the probability of death; multiplying this probability by 1000 to yield the post-neonatal mortality rate. Survival-time inverse probability weighting model was used to estimate Average Treatment Effect (ATE). RESULTS: The percentage of children under age 5 who had diarrhoea in the last 2 weeks preceding the survey declined from 15.8 % (95 % CI: 15.2 %, 16.4 %) in 2012 to 12.7 % (95 % CI: 12.3 %, 13.2 %) in 2015. Over the same period, mortality in post-neonatal children under 5 years of age declined by 34 %, from an estimated rate of 29 deaths per 1000 live births (95 % CI: (26, 32) death per 1000 live births) to 19 deaths per 1000 live births (95 % CI: (16, 21) death per 1000 live births). When every child in the population of children aged 1-59 months is exposed to the intervention, the average time-to-death was estimated to be about 8 months more than when no child is exposed (ATE = 7.9; 95 % CI: 4.4,11.5; P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Well-packaged diarrhoea preventive and treatment interventions delivered at the clinic and community-level could potentially reduce probability of death among children aged 1-59 months.

Hypernatremia in Children With Diarrhea: Presenting Features, Management, Outcome, and Risk Factors for Death.

We sought to investigate the magnitude, clinical features, treatment, and outcome of children suffering from hypernatremic diarrhea and to identify risk factors for fatal outcome among them. We reviewed 2 data sets of children <15 years admitted to the in-patient ward of the Dhaka Hospital of International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr, b) with diarrhea and hypernatremia (serum sodium ≥150 mmol/L): (a) March 2001 to March 2002 (n = 371) and (b) March 2009 to August 2011 (n = 360). We reviewed their records and collected relevant information for analyses. The prevalence of hypernatremia was 5.1% (371/7212) and 2.4% (360/15 219), case fatality rate was 15% and 19%, respectively. In logistic regression analysis, the risk for death significantly increased in association with serum sodium ≥170 mmol/L, nutritional edema, hypoglycemia, respiratory distress, and absent peripheral pulses and reduced with the sole use of oral rehydration salts (ORS) or ORS following intravenous fluid, if indicated (for all, P < .05). Thus, managing children with hypernatremia using only ORS or ORS following intravenous fluid may help reduce the number of deaths.

Morbimortalidade por doenças diarreicas agudas em crianças menores de 10 anos no Distrito Federal, Brasil, 2003 a 2012 / Acute diarrhoeal disease morbidity and mortality in children under 10 years old in the Brazilian Federal District, 2003 to 2012 / Morbimortalidad de las enfermedades diarreicas agudas en niños menores de 10 años en el Distrito Federal, Brasil, 2003 a 2012

OBJETIVO: descrever a morbimortalidade e a sazonalidade das doenças diarreicas nos menores de 10 anos de idade residentes no Distrito Federal, Brasil, de 2003 a 2012. MÉTODOS: estudo descritivo, com dados dos Sistemas de Informações Hospitalares do Sistema Único de Saúde (SIH/SUS), sobre Mortalidade (SIM), de Vigilância Epidemiológica das Doenças Diarreicas Agudas (Sivep-DDA) e planilhas de monitoramento da diarreia. RESULTADOS: foram contabilizados 558.737 casos de diarreia, com maior incidência entre menores de 1 ano (32,3 casos/100 crianças em 2003); no período, reduziram-se as taxas de hospitalização (de 6,5 para 3,0 internações/1000 crianças), mortalidade (de 4,5 para 1,5 óbitos/100 mil crianças) e letalidade hospitalar (de 0,70 para 0,49/100 crianças), com queda mais acentuada após a implantação da vacina contra rotavírus em 2006; as maiores taxas de internações ocorreram entre julho e setembro. CONCLUSÃO: houve redução de morbimortalidade por diarreia, principalmente em menores de 1 ano, com predomínio de internações na estação seca.

OBJECTIVE: to describe diarrhoeal disease morbidity, mortality and seasonality in children aged under 10 resident in Brazil's Federal District, 2003-2012. METHODS: this was a descriptive study using National Hospital Information System (SIH/SUS), Mortality Information System (SIM), Acute Diarrhoeal Disease Epidemiological Surveillance System (Sivep-DDA) as well as diarrhoea monitoring spreadsheets. RESULTS: 558,737 diarrhoea cases were registered with the highest incidence among children with less than one year old (32.3 cases/100 children in 2003); during the period there was a reduction in the hospitalization rates (from 6.5 to 3.0 hospitalizations/1,000 children), mortality rates (from 4.5 to 1.5 deaths/100,000 children) and hospital lethality (from 0.70 to 0.49/100 children), with a sharper decline after the implementation of rotavirus vaccine in 2006; highest hospitalization rates occurred between July and September. CONCLUSION: morbidity and mortality from diarrhoea reduced, particularly in children under one year old. Hospitalizations were more frequent during in the dry season.

OBJETIVO: describir la morbimortalidad y temporalidad de las enfermedades diarreicas agudas en niños menores de 10 años, residentes del Distrito Federal, Brasil, de 2003 a 2012. MÉTODO: estudio descriptivo, con datos del Sistema de Informaciones Hospitalarios (SIH/SUS), sobre Mortalidad (SIM), Vigilancia Epidemiológica de Enfermedades Diarreicas Agudas (SIVEP-DDA) y planillas de monitoreo de diarrea. RESULTADOS: fueron contabilizados 558.737 casos de diarrea, con mayor incidencia en niños menores de 1 año (32,3 casos/100 niños en 2003); en el período hubo reducción de las tasas de hospitalización (6,5 a 3,0 hospitalizaciones/1.000 niños), mortalidad (de 4,5 a 1,5 muertes/100 mil niños) y letalidad (de 0,70 a 0,49/100 niños), con declive más agudo después de la implantación de la vacuna contra rotavirus en 2006; las tasas de hospitalización más altos han ocurrido entre julio y septiembre. CONCLUSIÓN: hubo reducción de la morbimortalidad por diarrea, especialmente en niños menores de 1 año, con predominio de hospitalizaciones en la estación seca.

Breastfeeding and protection against diarrhea: an integrative review of literature / Aleitamento materno e proteção contra diarreia: revisão integrativa da literatura

ObjectiveTo identify, in national and international journals, the studies conducted in Brazil related to breast feeding and reducing cases of diarrhea in children under 2 years of age, featuring health interventions more used.MethodsDescriptive study, based on an integrative review of literature from PubMed and LILACS data published between January 1992 and August 2011. The keywords “breastfeeding AND diarrhea” was searched in Portuguese, English and Spanish in PubMed and LILACS. The guiding question was: “What was knowledge produced about breast feeding and prevention of diarrhea in children under 2 years between 1992 and 2011 in studies conducted in Brazil?”ResultsWe selected 11 studies that showed the importance of breast feeding in the prevention and protection against diarrhea in children under 6 months, especially among children in exclusive breastfeeding.ConclusionPublic health policies should be directed to the context of each locality, in order to reduce the problems that involve the early weaning.

ObjetivoIdentificar, em revistas científicas nacionais e internacionais os estudos realizados no Brasil sobre o aleitamento materno e sua relação com a redução de casos de diarreia em crianças com menos de 2 anos de idade, e que apresentam as intervenções de saúde mais utilizadas.MétodosEstudo descritivo, baseado em revisão integrativa da literatura, a partir de dados do LILACS e do PubMed, publicados no período de janeiro de 1992 a agosto de 2011. O termo “aleitamento materno E diarreia” foi pesquisado nessas bases de dados em português, inglês e espanhol. A pergunta norteadora foi: “Qual o conhecimento produzido sobre aleitamento materno e prevenção de diarreia em crianças menores de 2 anos entre 1992 e 2011 em estudos realizados no Brasil?”.ResultadosForam selecionados 11 artigos, que evidenciaram a importância do aleitamento materno na prevenção e na proteção contra a diarreia nos menores de 6 meses, especialmente nas crianças em aleitamento exclusivo.ConclusãoOs estudos analisados evidenciam o aleitamento materno como um fator de importância na prevenção e na proteção contra a diarreia nos menores de 2 anos. Os resultados sugerem que essa prática é importante para reduzir a mortalidade pós-neonatal bem como a taxa de internação hospitalar por doenças diarreicas na população infantil.

Breastfeeding and protection against diarrhea: an integrative review of literature.

OBJECTIVE: To identify, in national and international journals, the studies conducted in Brazil related to breast feeding and reducing cases of diarrhea in children under 2 years of age, featuring health interventions more used. METHODS: Descriptive study, based on an integrative review of literature from PubMed and LILACS data published between January 1992 and August 2011. The keywords "breastfeeding AND diarrhea" was searched in Portuguese, English and Spanish in PubMed and LILACS. The guiding question was: "What was knowledge produced about breast feeding and prevention of diarrhea in children under 2 years between 1992 and 2011 in studies conducted in Brazil?" RESULTS: We selected 11 studies that showed the importance of breast feeding in the prevention and protection against diarrhea in children under 6 months, especially among children in exclusive breastfeeding. CONCLUSION: Public health policies should be directed to the context of each locality, in order to reduce the problems that involve the early weaning.

Deconstructing the differences: a comparison of GBD 2010 and CHERG's approach to estimating the mortality burden of diarrhea, pneumonia, and their etiologies.

BACKGROUND: Pneumonia and diarrhea are leading causes of death for children under five (U5). It is challenging to estimate the total number of deaths and cause-specific mortality fractions. Two major efforts, one led by the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) and the other led by the World Health Organization (WHO)/Child Health Epidemiology Reference Group (CHERG) created estimates for the burden of disease due to these two syndromes, yet their estimates differed greatly for 2010. METHODS: This paper discusses three main drivers of the differences: data sources, data processing, and covariates used for modelling. The paper discusses differences in the model assumptions for etiology-specific estimates and presents recommendations for improving future models. RESULTS: IHME's Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2010 study estimated 6.8 million U5 deaths compared to 7.6 million U5 deaths from CHERG. The proportional differences between the pneumonia and diarrhea burden estimates from the two groups are much larger; GBD 2010 estimated 0.847 million and CHERG estimated 1.396 million due to pneumonia. Compared to CHERG, GBD 2010 used broader inclusion criteria for verbal autopsy and vital registration data. GBD 2010 and CHERG used different data processing procedures and therefore attributed the causes of neonatal death differently. The major difference in pneumonia etiologies modeling approach was the inclusion of observational study data; GBD 2010 included observational studies. CHERG relied on vaccine efficacy studies. DISCUSSION: Greater transparency in modeling methods and more timely access to data sources are needed. In October 2013, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (BMGF) hosted an expert meeting to examine possible approaches for better estimation. The group recommended examining the impact of data by systematically excluding sources in their models. GBD 2.0 will use a counterfactual approach for estimating mortality from pathogens due to specific etiologies to overcome bias of the methods used in GBD 2010 going forward.

Management of diarrhea in HIV-affected infants and children.

Globally, diarrhea is the second leading cause of death in children less than 5 years of age. HIV-infected and HIV-exposed uninfected (HEU) children are at high risk of dying from diarrhea and may be more susceptible to the highest risk enteric pathogens. This increased risk associated with HIV infection and HIV exposure is likely multifactorial. Factors such as immunosuppression, proximity to individuals more likely to be shedding pathogens, and exposure to antimicrobial prophylaxis may alter the risk profile in these children. Current international guidelines do not differentiate management strategies on the basis of whether children are infected or affected by HIV, despite likely differences in etiologies and consequences. Reducing diarrhea mortality in high HIV prevalence settings will require strengthening of HIV testing and treatment programs; improvements in water, sanitation and hygiene interventions targeted at HIV-affected households; and reconsideration of the use of empiric antimicrobial treatment of pathogens known to infect HIV-infected and HEU children disproportionately.

Estimation of maternal and child mortality one year after user-fee elimination: an impact evaluation and modelling study in Burkina Faso.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the impact on maternal and child mortality after eliminating user fees for pregnant women and for children less than five years of age in Burkina Faso. METHODS: Two health districts in the Sahel region eliminated user fees for facility deliveries and curative consultations for children in September 2008. To compare health-care coverage before and after this change, we used interrupted time series, propensity scores and three independent data sources. Coverage changes were assessed for four variables: women giving birth at a health facility, and children aged 1 to 59 months receiving oral rehydration salts for diarrhoea, antibiotics for pneumonia and artemesinin for malaria. We modelled the mortality impact of coverage changes in the Lives Saved Tool using several scenarios. FINDINGS: Coverage increased for all variables, however, the increase was not statistically significant for antibiotics for pneumonia. For estimated mortality impact, the intervention saved approximately 593 (estimate range 168-1060) children's lives in both districts during the first year. This lowered the estimated under-five mortality rate from 235 deaths per 1000 live births in 2008 to 210 (estimate range 189-228) in 2009. If a similar intervention were to be introduced nationwide, 14,000 to 19,000 (estimate range 4000-28,000) children's lives could be saved annually. Maternal mortality showed a modest decrease in all scenarios. CONCLUSION: In this setting, eliminating user fees increased use of health services and may have contributed to reduced child mortality.

Childhood diarrhoeal deaths in seven low- and middle-income countries.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the clinical characteristics of children who died from diarrhoea in low- and middle-income countries, such as the duration of diarrhoea, comorbid conditions, care-seeking behaviour and oral rehydration therapy use. METHODS: The study included verbal autopsy data on children who died from diarrhoea between 2000 and 2012 at seven sites in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Pakistan, Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania, respectively. Data came from demographic surveillance sites, randomized trials and an extended Demographic and Health Survey. The type of diarrhoea was classified as acute watery, acute bloody or persistent and risk factors were identified. Deaths in children aged 1 to 11 months and 1 to 4 years were analysed separately. FINDINGS: The proportion of childhood deaths due to diarrhoea varied considerably across the seven sites from less than 3% to 30%. Among children aged 1-4 years, acute watery diarrhoea accounted for 31-69% of diarrhoeal deaths, acute bloody diarrhoea for 12-28%, and persistent diarrhoea for 12-56%. Among infants aged 1-11 months, persistent diarrhoea accounted for over 30% of diarrhoeal deaths in Ethiopia, India, Pakistan, Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania. At most sites, more than 40% of children who died from persistent diarrhoea were malnourished. CONCLUSION: Persistent diarrhoea remains an important cause of diarrhoeal death in young children in low- and middle-income countries. Research is needed on the public health burden of persistent diarrhoea and current treatment practices to understand why children are still dying from the condition.